Art History: 21 Highly Influential Works

For almost one thousand years, from the time Christianity became the official religion of Rome to the beginning of the Renaissance (the period of time called the Middle Ages), most painters abandoned the Roman and Greek “classical” style for a more formalized and official religious style called Byzantine. Madonna and Child Enthroned is an excellent representation of this genre. The Byzantine style was two-dimensional, symbolic, and emphasized divinity and spirituality—often through biblical figures and narratives. As is the case in Madonna and Child Enthroned, individual artists were rarely known. It was far more important that the content focus solely on God.

Giotto di Bondone was an Italian who came to be remembered as the painter who led the Italians back to natural forms. He was one of the first in a millennium to paint in such a way. His use of emotion and the composition of Lamentation over Christ in an almost stage-like way (filling the scene to the edges and overlapping figures) made him well known both in his time and now. The Gothic period in which he painted (c. 1150–1400) saw the most significant changes in art since the Romans and early Christians, and refers to the last phase of the Middle Ages or medieval times. The word "Gothic" was originally used as a derogatory term by the Italians because of their intense dislike of Northern art (the Goths were one of the tribes that destroyed the Roman Empire).

By this point in history, artists were breaking away from the Byzantine style, and the Early Renaissance had begun. It was a time of intellectual flourishing, with artists in particular making strides in the fields of math and science as they studied to make their work appear true to nature. Masaccio was one of the first painters to use the specific and mathematical rules of scientific perspective to achieve a realistic view of where things are in space. Note the foreshortening of the architectural background that makes the content of the painting appear "right" to the eye. Additionally, the bodies, both robed and unrobed, that Masaccio painted are the result of carefully studying the human body. Many artists of this time even examined cadavers to accurately represent the human form in their art.

Dürer was from Germany and was heavily influenced by his travels to Italy during the Renaissance. This influence moved his art away from the style of the late Gothic period. He retained Northern influences, however, and did not completely conform to the Italian Renaissance, which gave his work a distinct look as part of what is now known as the Northern Renaissance. Dürer believed it was part of his life's work to spread what he had learned in his studies in Italy to his geographical contemporaries. This was made easier by the fact that he was an expert printmaker. His prints were less costly than paintings and were more easily reproduced.

Fresh eyes will assist in appreciating this extremely well-known piece from the High Renaissance. The inclusion of landscape in the background as something very much part of the whole was one of the goals of the High Renaissance. Leonardo, truly a genius, studied human anatomy carefully and utilized this understanding of ratios and perspective to achieve the form of the sitter for this painting. The atmospheric haze and soft blending (called "sfumato"—meaning smoked or smoky) he achieved here made this painting particularly important, as he pioneered and mastered the technique. Other Renaissance artists, such as Raphael, were greatly impacted by Leonardo's work.

After the Renaissance, during the battle between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformation, a new movement in art began to emerge. Initially an insulting label (and still sometimes used to convey excessiveness), Baroque now describes the art of the seventeenth century. Caravaggio appeared early in the movement. His use of light and dark (called "chiaroscuro"), his skill at capturing scenes at "just so" moments, and his portrayal of sacred events in a relatable, natural manner were revolutionary. Note these strengths in The Calling of Saint Matthew. The beam of light just above Christ's hand acts almost as a force moving directly to Matthew's face. The Baroque era (including and in some ways led by Caravaggio) was characterized by an emotional, theatrical style, with an emphasis on naturalism and everyday life.

Peter Paul Rubens was from Flanders, the southern half of the Netherlands, which was under Catholic/Spanish rule. Also part of the Baroque movement—more specifically the Flemish Baroque—Rubens was greatly influenced by Caravaggio and many of the artists of the Renaissance. He was able to take countless lessons and techniques from these predecessors and then create something louder and distinct. Rubens' paintings were full of color, vibrancy, and movement. This painting depicts the new Queen of France arriving from her home country of Italy by boat. Note the fullness of the painting, extending past the edge of the frame, and the excitement of the piece.

In Holland, the northern Protestant half of the Netherlands, at this time we find the Protestant Baroque (or Dutch Golden Age). Holland was a wealthy country where art was sought out and commissioned less by religious sects and more by wealthy benefactors and art collectors. One such sought-after artist was Rembrandt van Rijn. He continued in the tradition of Caravaggio—mastering chiaroscuro and focusing on applying realism to religious scenes. In this painting, he did so with the movement and excitement of Rubens. Rembrandt even painted himself on the boat in this painting (he is looking directly out, wearing a blue tunic). As Rembrandt aged, his paintings became less energetic but retained great depth and complexity. It took careful observation and thinking to understand his paintings. Christ in the Storm on the Sea of Galilee was stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in 1990 and remains missing today.

In France, self-proclaimed "Sun King" Louis XIV began the French Royal Academy—asserting an ideal style of art found in the work of Nicolas Poussin. This style was called classical French Baroque, which contrasted the "excessiveness" of Baroque with order and discipline, seeking to embody and perfect Roman and Greek antiquity, and proposing that all aspects of art should be in harmony. The French Royal Academy and the work of Nicolas Poussin became the model for many academies afterward, emphasizing rigid rules for the production of art.

After the death of the Sun King, the French nobility reacted against the rigidity and formality of the classical French Baroque in a new movement called Rococo. This genre is filled with a sort of "frivolous sensuality," soft lines, curves, and playful lightheartedness. François Boucher is a prime example of this style. Note in the painting the flirtatious male's attention to the milkmaid passing by as he puts flowers in the hair of his lover. Boucher became painter to King Louis XV when the artist caught the eye of his mistress, Madame de Pompadour. This Rococo mentality went beyond paintings to other aspects of court life. Marie Antoinette had a farm built on Versailles in which to play milkmaids and field hands. Amidst this backdrop, among the common people, revolution was stirring.

Neoclassicism appeared as a reaction against the "frivolous" Rococo style (this is when the names "Baroque" and "Rococo" were first used as insults). Discoveries of the antiquities of Rome and Greece led to a renewed interest in classical forms and styles, and artists began to paint once again following rigid structures and rules. Neoclassical painters, such as Jacques-Louis David, believed that art should be serious and used to promote nationalism and the ideas of the Enlightenment (which included an emphasis on logic and reason, scientific inquiry, and the challenging of traditional ideas). The Death of Socrates was painted shortly before the French Revolution and was meant to inspire patriotic feeling: just as Socrates was willing to die for his democratic ideals, so should the French common man be willing to stand against the nobility. David later became an official court painter for Napoleon Bonaparte.

Once again, the pendulum swung following Neoclassicism, partially in revolt against the Enlightenment ideals after the French Revolution. Romanticism valued the power of nature (its beauty and unpredictability), glorified emotion and drama over logic and reason, accepted private experiences, and esteemed imagination and individualism. As an example of early Romanticism, Goya's Third of May 1808 depicts events following the French Revolution: when Napoleon invaded Spain, citizens revolted against the French army. In retribution the following day, French soldiers rounded up and shot hundreds of them. Goya's work was extremely influential for many artists who came after him.

Courbet believed artists should paint only what could be directly seen—learning from, but not imitating, old masters. In the age of industrialization, Courbet wanted to represent things as they truly were, emphasizing modern realities and the common working class. This was part of Realism, the first Modern art movement, and it pushed back against Romanticism.

Édouard Manet followed in the footsteps of Courbet in Realism, painting with the hope of being true to the modern world. In a revolutionary technique, Manet used color to create form and shape more than relying on light and dark (chiaroscuro), as was previously done. In The Fifer, this technique is apparent, giving the piece a flatter, yet softer, appearance. Later influenced by the younger Claude Monet, Manet began to paint in a more Impressionist style.

Extremely influenced by Realism and Manet's trailblazing color techniques, Monet and others attempted to capture life as snapshot-type moments in a movement called Impressionism. These artists often painted outside (en plein air), with a wet-on-wet, "alla prima" approach (completing the painting in one sitting). The term Impressionism began to be used after this painting, which Monet knew could not be counted as a complete view of the harbour, and therefore named it "Impression." It is a fitting name for the movement, in which artists attempted to capture the truth and beauty of the fleeting moments they observed.

A truly pioneering artist, Paul Cézanne is often referred to as "the father of modern art." He painted in a time called Post-Impressionism. Cézanne especially sought to represent the world in painting not through traditional linear perspective, but more like how the eye observes—from several angles at once. Cézanne took the foundation of realism applied in Impressionism to the next level—to make things "real" as they are in the realm of the canvas and of the emotions. In this still life, note that there remains an illusion of depth, but the items on the table, and the table itself, are presented from different angles and at a tilt.

Within the broader Post-Impressionism movement, another style emerged called Neo-Impressionism. Georges Seurat is considered the founder of this movement (also called pointillism or divisionism), which used color theory and strict rules to create images that were broken down to their tiniest building blocks in exacting ways. A Sunday Afternoon is an excellent example of this style: all is still and perfectly placed; not a single brushstroke is haphazard.

Following Post-Impressionism (and inspired by its bold use of color and liberties in expression), Matisse pioneered a new group that came to be known as the Fauves, meaning "Wild Beasts"—originally an insult that Matisse and the others embraced gladly. Fauvism became a precursor of Expressionism, and Henri Matisse became known as an "old master" of Modern Art. The Fauves emphasized the flatness of paintings and used simplified forms and highly saturated colors without trying to be academic or true to nature. Many pieces of the Fauves are far brighter and more violent in color—this one was painted after the peak of Fauvism (generally 1905–1909) and is often associated with Expressionism—but Nasturtiums showcases Matisse well and his attempt to reduce a design to its barest form while retaining its essence.

Considered the most influential modern art movement, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque worked together to develop Cubism. In this style, the artists represented objects from several angles at once by fragmenting them, abandoning traditional perspective. This movement had an incredible impact on abstract art and consisted of two phases—Analytic Cubism, then Synthetic Cubism (using non-art materials and collage). Accordionist is an excellent example of Analytic Cubism. It was not, however, completely abstract, as Picasso sought to incorporate aspects of the musician. For example, in the upper middle portion of the painting, there is the face; the protruding right angle below that is his arm; and the curved shape near Picasso's signature is likely the leg of a chair.

Max Ernst was one of the leading members of the Dada movement (1916–1930), an "anti-art" movement aimed to scandalize, shock, offend, and outrage. Ernst later led the way into Surrealism, often trying to transfer dreams and the unconscious mind into the artwork. Influenced by Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx, Ernst and other Surrealists used psychoanalytic ideas like free association to express unconscious ideas, attempting to turn off the conscious mind (a technique called "automatism"). The Barbarians is an example of Surrealism and uses a technique called grattage (scraping wet paint off a surface, often with an object underneath to reveal the underlying texture). Ernst used this technique and then painted around the grattage to create this piece.

Inspired by Surrealism and the use of automatism, Jackson Pollock emerged as one of the originators of Abstract Expressionism, or Action Painting. Pollock developed his own drip technique inspired by Max Ernst's "oscillation"—swinging a tin can with punctured holes over a canvas, then turning those marks into recognizable forms. In an attempt to deal with difficulties and inner darkness, Pollock sought to express emotions through whole-body painting. He famously said, "I want to express my feelings, not illustrate them."